Consolidating the Alliance
Considering the cultural differences between the British and Kanyen'kehaka, finding common ground was challenging. However, cooperation and alliance-building between the British and the Kanyen'kehaka had a history dating back to the first religious conversion projects of 1704. Both peoples had reasons to benefit from this alliance, but it is important to note the nuances of the agreements regarding questions of Indigenous agency and imperialist agendas.
Adapting to Circumstances and Protection of Territory
It has been previously mentioned that the Kanyen'kehaka have a tradition of seeking peace and cooperation with all nations, but this goal was not always mutual. The Kanyen'kehaka had a history of conflict with French colonists, as the French chose to ally themselves with the Huron-Wendat and Algonquin people to the north. After decades of violence, peace negotiations were made with the French in 1701. However, Kanyen'kehaka leaders knew that further land encroachments would continue unless they sought an ally to aid them in protecting their lands. In 1710, Kanyen'kehaka leaders travelled to England to meet Queen Anne and made plans to counteract French influence by having Anglican missionaries come to Kanyen'kehaka territory. The Primer thus fits into this project of counteracting French-Catholic influence in order to forge a strong alliance with the British to protect Kanyen'kehaka territory and sovereignty.
Strong ties to Anglicanism would foster unity for the British and Kanyen'kehaka, and separate the British from other European powers. The Kayen'kehaka saw the British as “figures of power with whom alliances could be advantageous if properly managed"(Elbourne 2011, 95), and it has been argued that they gained from the extended contact by learning the English language. By some accounts, the Kanyen'kehaka were enthusiastic about educational opportunities which gave them the tools to engage with European powers to negotiate economic, political, and military interests and meet pressing needs, including constructing mills.
Spotlight On: Paulus Sahonwádi
Paulus Sahonwádi (also known as Sahonwagy) was a Kanyen'kehaka sachem, schoolmaster, translator, and interpreter. He is believed to be the teacher depicted in the frontispiece engraving of the second edition of the Primer. Appointed by the Society for the Propagation of the Gospel (SPG), Sahonwádi taught around forty children per day. He was known to use spelling books and manuscripts as well as the Primer in his lectures, and was paid a salary of seven pounds per year. He was also known to teach adults, and read Christian psalms and prayers to the community. Other Indigenous teachers in the area employed by the SPG included Catheron Loft, Jemima Loft Beaver, Lydia Hill, and Elizabeth Powless.
Sahonwádi was the son of the influential leader Theyanoguin ("King Hendrick"), one of the "Four Indian Kings" who travelled to England in 1710. Thus, Sahonwádi had to balance his time as teacher and leader during major political events like the Seven Years' War. He attended the same councils as Sir William Johnson, and was later involved in important struggles for land claims.
Like many other Kanyen'kehaka people, Sahonwádi fled north of the Great Lakes during the American Revolution. He later moved to the present-day Grand River area where he was engaged in 1780 by Daniel Claus to proofread The Mohawk Book of Common Prayer. The following year, Sahonwádi led the instruction of Kanyen'kehaka refugees living in Montreal. When he returned to the Grand River settlement in 1785, Sahonwádi was dismayed at the lack of teachers in the area, so he took up the position himself.
Sahonwádi advocated for the importance of Indigenous teachers instead of white teachers, asserting that "if he does not understand our language, he cannot restrain them [the children] from doing wrong" (Richardson). This quotation raises the important notion of agency held by Indigenous instructors and translators during this time period. As it is clear that Sahonwádi worked with Claus on The Mohawk Book of Common Prayer but a year earlier, it is likely he also played a role in editing and creating the Primer. Nonetheless, he was not given official credit for his efforts, besides the possible mention on the last page that some have speculated refers to him (compare Wright and Sawaya). It is worth noting that while Indigenous interpreters could translate the instructional text and the Bible, they were not permitted to alter or comment on holy scripture in any way. Evidence of this restriction is evident in the preface written by Teyoninhokarawen (John Norton) for his translation of the Gospel of St. John: "the preface was not published with the translation as being 'incompatible with a fundamental law of the Society to issue the Bible 'without note or comment'" (Evans, 532). The agency of teachers and translators like Sahonwádi may have been purposely excluded from publications like the Primer by the British colonial authority.